Production
cost can be reduced by reducing cocoa solid
content or substituting cocoa butter with a
non-cocoa fat. Chocolate is a popular
ingredient in many other foods, so any
change in its cost has a significant
economic impact.
The two main jobs associated with creating
chocolate candy are: chocolate makers and
chocolatiers. Chocolate makers are those who
produce couverture chocolate from harvested
cacao beans and other ingredients.
Chocolatiers take the finished couverture to
make chocolate candies (bars, truffles,
baked goods, etc.).
History
Main article: History of chocolate
The word "chocolate" comes from the Nahuatl
language of the Aztecs of Mexico. The word
is derived from the Nahuatl word xocolatl
[3], which is a combination of the words,
xocolli, meaning "bitter", and atl, which is
"water". It is associated with the Mayan god
of Fertility. Mexican philologist Ignacio
Davila Garibi, proposed that "Spaniards had
coined the word by taking the Maya word
chocol and then replacing the Maya term for
water, haa, with the Aztec one, atl."[4]
However, it is more likely that the Aztecs
themselves coined the term, having long
adopted into the Nahuatl the Mayan word for
the "cacao" bean; the Spanish had little
contact with the Mayans before Cortés's
early reports to the Spanish King of the
beverage known as xocolatl.[5]
The chocolate residue found in an ancient
Maya pot suggests that Mayans were drinking
chocolate 2,600 years ago, which is the
earliest record of cacao use. The Aztecs
associated chocolate with Xochiquetzal, the
goddess of fertility. In the New World,
chocolate was consumed in a bitter and spicy
drink called xocoatl, often seasoned with
vanilla, chile pepper, and achiote, (which
is known today as annatto). Xocoatl was
believed to fight fatigue, a belief that is
probably attributable to the theobromine
content. Chocolate was an important luxury
good throughout pre-Columbian Mesoamerica,
and cocoa beans were often used as currency.
Other chocolate drinks combined it with such
edibles as maize starch paste (which acts as
an emulsifier and thickener), various
fruits, and honey. In 1689 noted physician
and collector Hans Sloane, developed a milk
chocolate drink in Jamaica[6] which was
initially used by apothecaries, but later
sold by the Cadbury brothers.
Roughly two-thirds of the entire world's
cocoa is produced in Western Africa, with
close to half of the total sourced from Côte
d'Ivoire. Like many food industry producers,
individual cocoa farmers are at the mercy of
volatile world markets. The price can vary
from £500 ($945) to £3,000 ($5,672) per ton,
in the space of just a few years. While
investors trading in cacao can dump shares
at will, individual cocoa farmers cannot
increase production or abandon trees at
anywhere near that pace. It has been alleged
that an estimated 90% of cocoa farms in Côte
d'Ivoire have used some form of slave labor
in order to remain viable,[7] and that when
cocoa prices drop, farmers in West Africa
sometimes cut costs by using slave labor.
Production
Varieties
The three main varieties of cacao beans used
in chocolate are Criollo, Forastero and
Trinitario.
Criollo, the variety native to Central
America, the Caribbean islands and the
northern tier of South American states, is
the rarest and most expensive cocoa on the
market. There is some dispute about the
genetic purity of cocoas sold today as
Criollo, since most populations have been
exposed to the genetic influence of other
varieties. Criollos are difficult to grow,
as they are vulnerable to a host of
environmental threats and deliver low yields
of cocoa per tree. The flavor of Criollo is
characterized as delicate but complex, low
in classic chocolate flavor, but rich in
"secondary" notes of long duration.
Forastero is a large group of wild and
cultivated cacaos, probably native to the
Amazon basin. The huge African cocoa crop is
entirely of the Forastero variety. They are
significantly hardier and of higher yield
than Criollo. Forastero cocoas are typically
big in classic "chocolate" flavor, but this
is of short duration and is unsupported by
secondary flavors. There are exceptional
Forasteros, such as the "Nacional" or
"Arriba" variety, which can possess great
complexity.
Trinitario, a natural hybrid of Criollo and
Forastero, originated in Trinidad after an
introduction of (Amelonado) Forastero to the
local Criollo crop. These cocoas exhibit a
wide range of flavor profiles according to
the genetic heritage of each tree.
Nearly all cacao produced over the past five
decades is of the Forastero or lower-grade
Trinitario varieties. The share of higher
quality Criollos and Trinitarios (so-called
flavor cacao) is just under 5% per annum.[9]
Harvesting
First, the pods, containing cacao beans, are
harvested. The beans, together with their
surrounding pulp, are removed from the pod
and left in piles or bins to ferment for
three to seven days. The beans must then be
quickly dried to prevent mold growth;
weather permitting, this is done by
spreading the beans out in the sun.
The beans are then roasted, graded and
ground. Cocoa butter is removed from the
resulting chocolate liquor either by being
pressed or by the Broma process. The residue
is what is known as cocoa powder.
Blending
Chocolate liquor is blended with the butter
in varying quantities to make different
types of chocolate or couvertures. The basic
blends of ingredients, in order of highest
quantity of cocoa liquor first, are as
follows:
1. Dark chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter,
cocoa liquor, and (sometimes) vanilla
2. Milk chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter,
cocoa liquor, milk or milk powder, and
vanilla
3. White chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter,
milk or milk powder, and vanilla
U.S. chocolates have a lower percentage
requirement of cocoa liquor for dark
chocolate, so some dark chocolate has sugar
as the top ingredient.
Usually, an emulsifying agent such as soya
lecithin is added, though a few
manufacturers prefer to exclude this
ingredient for purity reasons and to remain
GMO-free (Soya is a heavily genetically
modified crop), sometimes at the cost of a
perfectly smooth texture. Some manufacturers
are now using PGPR, an artificial emulsifier
derived from castor oil that allows them to
reduce the amount of cocoa butter while
maintaining the same mouth feel.
The texture is also heavily influenced by
processing, specifically conching (see
below). The more expensive chocolates tend
to be processed longer and thus have a
smoother texture and "feel" on the tongue,
regardless of whether emulsifying agents are
added.
Different manufacturers develop their own
"signature" blends based on the above
formulas but varying proportions of the
different constituents are used.
The finest plain dark chocolate couvertures
contain at least 70% cocoa (solids +
butter), whereas milk chocolate usually
contains up to 50%. High-quality white
chocolate couvertures contain only about 33%
cocoa. Inferior and mass-produced chocolate
contains much less cocoa (as low as 7% in
many cases) and fats other than cocoa
butter. Some chocolate makers opine that
these "brand name" milk chocolate products
should not be classed as couvertures, or
even as chocolate, because of the low or
virtually non-existent cocoa content.
Conching
Main article: Conching
The penultimate process is called conching.
A conche is a container filled with metal
beads, which act as grinders. The refined
and blended chocolate mass is kept liquid by
frictional heat. The conching process
produces cocoa and sugar particles smaller
than the tongue can detect, hence the smooth
feel in the mouth. The length of the
conching process determines the final
smoothness and quality of the chocolate.
High-quality chocolate is conched for about
72 hours, lesser grades about four to six
hours. After the process is complete, the
chocolate mass is stored in tanks heated to
approximately 45–50 °C (113–122 °F) until
final processing.
Tempering
The final process is called tempering.
Uncontrolled crystallization of cocoa butter
typically results in crystals of varying
size, some or all large enough to be clearly
seen with the naked eye. This causes the
surface of the chocolate to appear mottled
and matte, and causes the chocolate to
crumble rather than snap when broken. The
uniform sheen and crisp bite of properly
processed chocolate are the result of
consistently small cocoa butter crystals
produced by the tempering process.
The fats in cocoa butter can crystallize in
six different forms (polymorphous
crystallization). The primary purpose of
tempering is to assure that only the best
form is present. The six different crystal
forms have different properties.
Making good chocolate is about forming the
most of the type V crystals. This provides
the best appearance and mouth feel and
creates the most stable crystals so the
texture and appearance will not degrade over
time. To accomplish this, the temperature is
carefully manipulated during the
crystallization.
Generally, the chocolate is first heated to
45°C (113°F) to melt all six forms of
crystals. Then the chocolate is cooled to
about 27°C (80°F), which will allow crystal
types IV and V to form (VI takes too long to
form). At this temperature, the chocolate is
agitated to create many small crystal
"seeds" which will serve as nuclei to create
small crystals in the chocolate. The
chocolate is then heated to about 31°C
(88°F) to eliminate any type IV crystals,
leaving just the type V. After this point,
any excessive heating of the chocolate will
destroy the temper and this process will
have to be repeated. However, there are
other methods of chocolate tempering used--
the most common variant is introducing
already tempered, solid "seed" chocolate.
Two classic ways of tempering chocolate are:
- Working the melted
chocolate on a heat-absorbing surface,
such as a stone slab, until thickening
indicates the presence of sufficient
crystal "seeds"; the chocolate is then
gently warmed to working temperature.
- Stirring solid
chocolate into melted chocolate to
"inoculate" the liquid chocolate with
crystals (this method uses the already
formed crystal of the solid chocolate to
"seed" the melted chocolate).
Storing
Chocolate is very sensitive to temperature
and humidity. Ideal storage temperatures are
between 15 and 17 degrees Celsius (59 to 63
degrees Fahrenheit), with a relative
humidity of less than 50%. Chocolate should
be stored away from other foods as it can
absorb different aromas. Ideally, chocolates
are packed or wrapped, and placed in proper
storage with the correct humidity and
temperature. Additionally chocolate should
be stored in a dark place or protected from
light by wrapping paper. Sunlight may warm
up the surface of the chocolate and cause it
to turn 'grey' from the formation of cocoa
butter crystals; the taste may be slightly
different due to the altered cocoa butter.
Physiological effects
Pleasure of consuming
Part of the pleasure of eating chocolate is
due to the fact that its melting point is
slightly below human body temperature: it
melts in the mouth. Chocolate intake has
been linked with release of serotonin in the
brain, which is thought to produce feelings
of pleasure..[10] Research has shown, that
heroin addicts tend to have an increased
liking for chocolate; this may be because it
triggers dopamine release in the brain's
reinforcement systems[11] — an effect,
albeit a legal one, similar to that of
opiates.
Potential health benefits and risks
Recent studies have suggested that cocoa or
dark chocolate may possess certain
beneficial effects on human health. Dark
chocolate, with its high cocoa content, is a
rich source of the flavonoids epicatechin
and gallic acid, which are thought to
possess cardioprotective properties. Cocoa
possesses a significant antioxidant action,
protecting against LDL oxidation, perhaps
more than other polyphenol antioxidant-rich
foods and beverages. Processing cocoa with
alkali destroys most of the flavonoids.[12]
Some studies have also observed a modest
reduction in blood pressure and
flow-mediated dilation after consuming
approximately 100g of dark chocolate daily.
There has even been a fad diet, named
"Chocolate diet", that emphasizes eating
chocolate and cocoa powder in capsules.
However, consuming milk chocolate or white
chocolate, or drinking milk with dark
chocolate, appears largely to negate the
health benefit.[13] Chocolate is also a
calorie-rich food with a high fat content,
so daily intake of chocolate also requires
reducing caloric intake of other foods.
Two-thirds of the fat in chocolate comes in
the forms of a saturated fat called stearic
acid and a monounsaturated fat called oleic
acid. However, unlike other saturated fats,
stearic acid does not raise levels of LDL
cholesterol in the bloodstream.[14]
Consuming relatively large amounts of dark
chocolate and cocoa does not seem to raise
serum LDL cholesterol levels; some studies
even find that it could lower them[15].
Several population studies have observed an
increase in the risk of certain cancers
among people who frequently consume sweet
'junk' foods such as chocolate. However,
very little evidence exists to suggest
whether consuming flavonoid-rich dark
chocolate may increase or decrease the risk
of cancer. Evidence from laboratory studies
suggest that cocoa flavonoids may possess
anticarcinogenic mechanisms, but more
research is needed to prove this idea.
The major concern that nutritionists have is
that even though eating dark chocolate may
favorably affect certain biomarkers of
cardiovascular disease, the amount needed to
have this effect would provide a relatively
large quantity of calories which, if unused,
would promote weight gain. Obesity is a
significant risk factor for many diseases,
including cardiovascular disease. As a
consequence, consuming large quantities of
dark chocolate in an attempt to protect
against cardiovascular disease has been
described as 'cutting off one's nose to
spite one's face'.[16].
Studies suggest a specially formulated type
of cocoa may boost brain function and delay
decline as people age.[17]
See also: chocoholism
Chocolate contains a variety of substances,
some of which are addictive (such as
caffeine). These include:
- Sugar - Chocolate bars
(as opposed to cocoa) contain large
amounts of sugar.
- Theobromine - This is
the primary alkaloid found in cocoa and
chocolate[18], and is one of the causes
for chocolate's mood-elevating effects.
This mild stimulant belongs to the
methylxanthine family, which also includes
the similar compound caffeine, with which
theobromine is frequently confused.
- Anandamide - An
endogenous cannabinoid.
- Tryptophan - An
essential amino acid that is a precursor
to serotonin, an important
neurotransmitter involved in regulating
moods.
- Phenethylamine - An
endogenous amphetamine. Often described as
a 'love chemical'. However, it is quickly
metabolized by the enzyme MAO-B,
preventing significant concentrations from
reaching the brain.
- Caffeine - This
stimulant is present mainly in coffee and
tea. Exists in chocolate in very small
amounts [18].
Current research indicates
that chocolate has a weak stimulant effect
due mainly to its content of
theobromine.[19] However, chocolate contains
too little of this compound for a reasonable
serving to create effects in humans that are
on par with a coffee buzz. Chocolate
contains only small amounts of the compound
caffeine. [20] There are 5 to 10 milligrams
of caffeine in one ounce of bittersweet
chocolate, 5 milligrams in milk chocolate,
and 10 milligrams in a 170 milliliter cup of
cocoa. There are 100 to 150 milligrams of
caffeine in an 220 milliliter cup of coffee;
it would be necessary to eat more than a
dozen chocolate bars to get the same amount
of caffeine as one cup of coffee. The
pharmacologist Ryan J. Huxtable has
described chocolate as "more than a food but
less than a drug". However, chocolate is a
very potent stimulant for horses; its use is
therefore banned in horse-racing.
Theobromine is also a contributing factor in
acid reflux because it relaxes the
esophageal sphincter muscle, allowing
stomach acid to enter the esophagus more
easily.
Chocolate also contains small quantities of
the endogenous cannabinoid anandamide and
the cannabinoid breakdown inhibitors
N-oleoylethanolamine and
N-linolenoylethanolamine. Anandamides are
produced naturally by the body, in such a
way that their effects are extremely
targeted (compared to the broad systemic
effects of drugs like tetrahydrocannabinol)
and relatively short-lived. In experiments,
N-oleoylethanolamine and
N-linolenoylethanolamine interfere with the
body's natural mechanisms for breaking down
endogenous cannabinoids, causing them to
last longer. However, noticeable effects of
chocolate related to this mechanism in
humans have not been demonstrated.
Some studies have described a condition
called Hysteroid dysphoria, characterized by
repeated episodes of depressed mood in
response to feeling rejected, and a craving
for chocolate.
Medical applications
Mars, Incorporated, a Virginia-based candy
company, spends millions of dollars each
year on flavonol research. The company is
talking with pharmaceutical companies to
license drugs based on synthesized cocoa
flavonol molecules. According to Mars-funded
researchers at Harvard, the University of
California, and European universities,
cocoa-based prescription drugs could
potentially help treat diabetes, dementia
and other diseases.[21]
Coughing
Research indicates that chocolate may be
effective at preventing persistent coughing.
The ingredient theobromine was found to be
almost one third more effective than
codeine, the leading cough medicine.[22] The
chocolate also appears to soothe and moisten
the throat.
As an aphrodisiac
Romantic lore commonly identifies chocolate
as an aphrodisiac. The reputed aphrodisiac
qualities of chocolate are most often
associated with the simple sensual pleasure
of its consumption. More recently,
suggestion has been made that serotonin and
other chemicals found in chocolate, most
notably phenethylamine, can act as mild
sexual stimulants. While there is no firm
proof that chocolate is indeed an
aphrodisiac, giving a gift of chocolate to
one's sweetheart is a familiar courtship
ritual.
Lead
Chocolate has one of the higher
concentrations of lead among products that
constitute a typical Westerner's diet.
Recent studies have shown that although the
beans themselves absorb little lead, it
tends to bind to cocoa shells and
contamination may occur during the
manufacturing process.[24] A recent
peer-reviewed publication found significant
amounts of lead in chocolate.[25] A review
article published in a peer-reviewed journal
in 2006 states that despite high consumption
levels of chocolate, there is a paucity of
data on lead concentrations in chocolate
products. Mean lead levels in the samples
tested ranged from 0.0010 to 0.0965 μg lead
per gram of chocolate, while the
international standard limits the lead
content of cocoa powder or beans to 1 μg of
lead per gram product.[26] In 2006, the U.S.
FDA lowered by one-fifth the amount of lead
permissible in candy, but compliance is only
voluntary.[27] While studies show that the
lead consumed in chocolate may not all be
absorbed by the human body, there is no
known threshold for the effects of lead on
children's brain function and even small
quantities of lead can cause permanent
neurodevelopmental deficits including
impaired IQ.[28]
Toxicity in animals
Main article: theobromine poisoning
In sufficient amounts, the theobromine found
in chocolate is toxic to animals such as
horses, dogs, parrots, small rodents, and
cats (kittens especially) because they are
unable to metabolize the chemical
effectively. If they are fed chocolate, the
theobromine will remain in their bloodstream
for up to 20 hours, and these animals may
experience epileptic seizures, heart
attacks, internal bleeding, and eventually
death. Medical treatment involves inducing
vomiting within two hours of ingestion, or
contacting a veterinarian.
A typical 20-kilogram dog will normally
experience great intestinal distress after
eating fewer than 240 grams (8.47 oz) of
dark chocolate, but will not necessarily
experience bradycardia or tachycardia unless
it eats at least a half a kilogram (1.1 lbs)
of milk chocolate. Dark chocolate has 2 to 5
times more theobromine and thus is more
dangerous to dogs. According to the Merck
Veterinary Manual, approximately 1.3 grams
of baker's chocolate per kilogram of a dog's
body weight (0.02 oz/lb) is sufficient to
cause symptoms of toxicity. For example, a
typical 25-gram (0.88 oz) baker's chocolate
bar would be enough to bring about symptoms
in a 20-kilogram (44 lb) dog. Of course,
baking chocolate is rarely consumed directly
due to its unpleasant taste, but other dark
chocolates' canine toxicities may be
extrapolated based on this figure. Large
dogs such as St. Bernards or Rottweilers are
somewhat less susceptible to poisoning, but
as dogs like the taste of chocolate products
as much as humans do, they should still be
kept out of their reach; treats made from
carob are a good substitute and pose no
threat. There are reports that mulch made
from cacao bean shells is dangerous to pets
(and other animals) [29][30][31] |
